Robert Jones

This piece contains information that might prove useful to writers whose work relates to criminal or
historic identification investigations.

The piece provides information about forensic facial reconstruction, which is a process of
reconstructing a likeness of the face of an often-unknown person, who is also often a murder victim,
using their skull and soft-tissue statistics as guides. At this stage in its development, forensic facial
reconstruction is still a controversial technique, which is likely why it is also referred to as forensic
facial approximation. Its value resides in its ability to contribute to a combination of it and other
verified techniques applied during an identification process.

Forensic facial reconstruction methods themselves comprise combinations of investigative expertise
from a number of other fields such as anatomy, ancestry, anthropology, archaeology, artistry and
osteology in addition to forensic science. (Osteology is a study of bone structure, skeletal elements and
teeth that can contribute to determining the sex, age, previous health and, sometimes, the cause of death
of a person from their skeletal remains.)

Facial reconstruction is not new. It has a long history and is thought to have been originally associated
with religion and ancestor worship. It has been refined more recently by those involved in
anthropology and archaeology and forensic science.

Being based on a number of subjective considerations, facial reconstructions of one skull by two
different sculptors would not be exactly the same. Facial reconstructions can thus assist in
identification processes; but, for reasons outlined in the “Additional facts” portion of this piece, they
are not admissible as evidence in most United States courts.

Forensic facial reconstruction is generally done in two dimensions by drawing and in three dimensions
by sculpting. In the first case, sized drawings can be superimposed over a photograph or x-ray of a
skull to check its similarities. If accurate, copies of the drawing can be distributed to aid in identifying
the deceased.

In the second case, sculpting requires a knowledge of soft tissue thickness. Since the thickness varies
from face to face and from one portion of a face to another, it is difficult to estimate. Fortunately, for
some time, thickness measurements have been taken at specific points of facial tissues of persons of
various ancestry, age, sex, size, etc. The measurements have been recorded and averaged by group, and
they provide a guide for sculptors. Reportedly, if remains include some soft tissue, a forensic artist can
approximate tissue thickness covering additional facial areas. The position and configuration of main
facial features are usually fairly accurate because they are largely determined by the configuration of
the skull. Due to their uniqueness, items such as hair, glasses and jewelry can also help identify their
owners.

Computer programs have, of course, been created to take advantage of their storage, speed and
flexibility in adjusting the form, texture and color of a reconstructed face as suggested by sex, age and
race. Given the number of living persons in the world and the number of possible variations, none of
the previously described procedures represents an exact science.

Three-dimensional processes vary with individual sculptors, but they generally include the following
steps:

- The skull in question is examined to note any features, such as the configuration and symmetry of
nasal bones, the size and configuration of muscle attachments, the configuration of the mandible (lower
jaw) and the configuration and condition (especially wear) of teeth. These features contribute to the
overall appearance of a face.

- The skull is then cleaned and repaired (if required) with wax.

- The mandible is attached with wax according to tooth alignment. If no teeth remain, averaged
dimensions are used.

- Nasal openings and eye orbits are filled with modeling clay, and artificial eyes are set and centered
within orbital rims.

- A plaster cast of the skull is made.

- Small tissue depth markers are attached to the hardened casting at 21 specific locations (known as
landmarks). The lengths of the markers indicate the average thicknesses of soft tissue at those
locations.

- Modeling clay representing facial muscles is layered onto the cast, followed by clay representing soft
tissues of the neck.

- The nose and lips are reconstructed, the nose requiring a formula to determine its probable length,
pitch and configuration.

- Muscles of facial expression and soft tissue near the eyes are added.

- Clay representing tissues is added until it is within one millimeter of the height of the tissue
thickness markers, and the ears are added.

- More clay is added until it covers the tissue thickness markers; and finishing touches such as hair,
wrinkles, glasses and jewelry are applied to complete the reconstruction.

As previously mentioned, forensic facial reconstruction is not an exact science, but continually added
data and improved techniques are steadily improving its accuracy.

All facial reconstructions are not forensics related. The process has also been used to recreate the
likenesses of long-dead, especially historic, persons. An example is the recreation of the face of
Tutankhamun, the Egyptian king who died 3,333 years ago. His recreated face adorns the cover of the
June, 2005 issue of National Graphic Magazine.

Additional facts:

As some readers might know, a legal precedent is a legal principle having as its source a court decision
regarding a certain issue. Legal precedents provide guidelines used by judges to decide subsequent,
similar issues. Such a precedent is the Daubert Standard, which was set by the U.S. Supreme Court in
1993. Most, but not all, states have adopted the standard.
The Daubert Standard is used to decide the admissibility of expert witness testimony and to ensure that
the expert testimony is reliable. It allows a party to raise a motion, {known as a Daubert motion), to
exclude the presentation to a jury evidence that might be inadmissible and/or unfairly prejudicial. As
practiced today, facial reconstruction does not uphold the Daubert Standard and is therefore not
admissible as expert witness testimony.

As might be expected, forensic facial reconstruction is not exempt from the fact spinning of some
television shows. For example, many have had their characters order facial reconstructions
immediately upon the discovery of skeletal remains. Actually, such reconstructions are usually
requested as a last resort to enhance the possibility of identifying the remains.

A popular instrument for measuring facial soft tissue thickness was originally a needle that had been
held in a flame until its tip was covered with soot. The needle was then inserted until it struck bone and
then extracted. The portion of the tip that had no remaining soot indicated the tissue thickness. More
accurate methods, for example, ultrasonic probe measurements and CAT (computed axial tomography)
scans, have replaced this crude, but clever, method.